Development of Agriculture

Janick et al. focus on the use of fire and the development of agriculture as THE innovations that form the basis of civilization, but others might add the development of tools, language and writing to this list.

From Hunter/Gatherer to Horticulturist to Agriculturist

Agricultural origins can be traced to the Neolithic Age (around 8,000 B.C.). Plant domestication seems to have occurred independently in various regions possessing favorable environmental conditions and that include a diversity of habitats in a relatively small area, mild climate, abudant water and wildlife. An important center appears to be Greater Mesopotamia (present day Iraq). This is a rich flood plain where wheat, barley, and oats are believed to have originated. The image below shows the Zagros mountains of Iraq where the landscape appears much as it probably was 10,000 years ago.

The story that emerges from countless studies on the process of domestication is that social groups of hunters/gatherers made a slow transition into a more settled lifestyle closely associated with the regular cultivation of plants, especially cereals. However, see one anthropological perspective on the relationship between horticulture and agriculture.


Although crops of relatively minor importance have been developed anew since the Middle Ages, all important crop plants and all domesticated animals were brought under human management ('domestication') in prehistoric times. The process of domestication was probably a gradual affair, involving the cultivation of specific groups of plants and the selection ('differential reproduction') of superior types. The first humans to domesticate plants were also the first 'plant breeders' (many believe they were probably women). Plant breeding has been defined as 'applied genetics', but effective breeding was obviously practiced before the principles of genetics were elucidated by Gregor Mendel in the 1850's.

We now know that major food crops originated in distinct 'Centers of Origin.' These geographic regions (shown below) were first identified by the great Russian breeder, Alexander Vavilov. The concept of these centers reflects the fact that most crop plants grown throughout the world are not native to the areas of greatest production. The centers of origin are important sources of wild plants related to crop plants which can contribute very useful hereditary traits (genes) such as resistance to diseases and pests. In fact, many of the improved varieties of crop plants carry traits recently obtained from wild species relatives and introduced through selective breeding.


The concept of centers of origins for food crops extends also to the various ornamental plants used in Horticulture. However, because of the tremendous diversity of plants used for ornamental purposes, there aren't centers as clearly delineated as for food crops. For landscape plants, one can identify China/Korea/Japan as a major area of origin (e.g. Rhododendrons, Peonies, etc). Many pot plants have come from South Africa (e.g., geraniums) and the Andean region of South America (e.g. petunias, fuchias, etc).

The domestication of plants and animals paralleled the development of villages, towns, and cities which reached a peak in the Civilizations that developed along the Nile river in present-day Egypt. The first formal gardens had their beginnings here. (Click on the word Egypt) to move on to the next section.
Return to the Chronology of Horticulture