About 8000 years ago the first humans arrived and began to settle Ireland. At that time Ireland was largely forested, and had a milder, warmer climate than today. These early people were hunter-gatherers and there is little evidence of their presence other than some flint tools and charcoal debris from camp sites. Neolithic farmers began to colonize Ireland around 3000 B.C. About 1800 BC a Bronze Age culture arose. Cultivation, livestock rearing, with widespread trading and new settlement arose. Then near 500 BC the warm dry climate shifted to the cooler and wetter conditions present today. This era also marked the invasions of the Celtic peoples, and an era of turmoil. The Celts introduced widespread cattle herding within a semi-migratory way of life. Their chieftains are described as cowlords. There was also Viking colonization during this period, mainly along coastal areas and inland river valleys, predominantly to the East. The first Anglo-Norman colonization of Ireland occurred in 1169. The centuries following this invasion saw a rise of Anglo-Norman power and influence within Ireland. A final collapse of Celtic resistance occurred in 1603. A long era of Ireland submitting to the demands of England occurred. Today, the Celtic language is spoken only in small enclaves in the hilly regions of the far west of the country.

Following English subjection of Ireland, there was a two-class society consisting of the landlords and the Irish peasantry. Religious strife and animosity also characterized this situation. As put by one observer, "It is difficult to exaggerate the degree of discrimination that Irish Catholics endured for the next century at the hands of the Anglican 'Ascendancy'. " This system formed the groundwork for the disastrous famine of 1846-48. Out of a population of 8.5 million, over a million died, and one million emigrated. Although the famine was not long lasting, the tradition of emigration had become entrenched as the rural peasants' response to poverty, such that by 1926 Ireland's population was less than half of the pre-famine total.

Some form of self-government for the Irish seemed inevitable after the First World War. One Easter Sunday in 1916 the city of Dublin awoke to find a rebellion led by Patrick Pearse underway. This rebellion was ruthlessly suppressed by the British with a result of over 100 deaths. Inevitably Public and world opinion turned against the British, such that in 1922 a free Irish state was created, with the six counties in the north in Ulster where Protestants formed a majority to remain within the British Commonwealth.

The tensions of this division, and the sometimes severe discrimination against Catholics found in the North, broke out into violence in the late 1960's, creating divisions that are not resolved to this day. However, with a relative ease of tensions in 1994, tourism to both north and south Ireland increased enormously, up by 25% in 1995. Today both countries are considered safe tourist destinations.

In Irish history, the point is emphasized frequently about the extent to which the country's intense pastoral settlement has impacted the cultural history and identity of the Irish people. Historian J.C. Beckett wrote:

"This history of Ireland must be based on a study of the relationship between the land and the people. It is in Ireland itself, the physical conditions, inspired by life in this country and the effect on those who have lived there, that the historian will find the distinct and continuing character of Irish history. "

Climate and Geography

The warming influence of The North Atlantic Drift influences the climate of all of Ireland. No part of Ireland is more than 70 miles from the sea. These warm surface currents enter the rivers, bays, and estuaries, and have the effect of warming the land. The impact of this warming influence, when considering cities and countries at similar latitudes is phenomenal. For example, the average January temperature for London is 30 degrees F., while Warsaw is 21, and Moscow 5 degrees. Average January temperatures for Ireland vary from 44-45 degrees in the southwest to 40-43 degrees elsewhere in Ireland. Another impact is that seasons merge gently one into another. Extreme heat or cold is hardly known. July is the warmest month, and inland temperatures average about 59 degrees. Frost is common in the winter throughout the east and central part of Ireland, and is rare in the west.

Another features of the Irish climate is day-to-day variety. As they say, the weather is quite "changeable. Another way this is put is to say the weather is "notoriously variable." This is due to the conflicting masses of polar and tropical air that conflict over the British Isles, and the friction creating from these opposing masses. Rainfall in Ireland is not that great, only about 28 inches per year in Dublin. Heavy accumulations are recorded in certain mountainous areas, and more rain falls on the west coast than the east. However, the number of days per year when some recordable amount of rain falls is high. These figures range from 180 days in the sunny southeast to over 250 days per year in the west. Wind cannot be forgotten to mention, as it impacts both golf and gardens. Wind is predominantly a prevailing westerly. Winds that can reach gale force at 90 to 100 m.p.h are not uncommon on the west coast.

The geography of Ireland, similar to many closely inhabited lands has been affected by man's intervention. Less than one percent of the native sub-Atlantic woodlands exist today. Grazing domesticated animals tended to be favored over native fauna, and the crops planted over centuries have affected plant communities. There are twenty four surviving wild mammals in Ireland, notable among the list the fox, badger, otter, pine marten, Irish stoat, grey seal, and common seal; seven rodents (hares, squirrels, rats and mice); the hedge hog and the pigmy shrew; seven species of bats; and the red deer. Some other seals and whales sometimes visit coastal areas. Ireland has 907 distinct native species of plants, which has been described as a "poverty of species." England is far more natively speciated than Ireland.

Ireland is a low-lying country. Most lands lie between 200 and 400 feet above sea-level, with isolated hills and plateaus rarely above 3000 ft. The landscape was heavily glaciated during the last ice age 10,000 years ago. The mountains are described as rugged, with water-shed corridors and glens impacted and created by the frequent precipitation.